A warm and potentially stormy start to the weekend on tap with Storm Prediction Center placing the area under slight risk for severe weather Saturday. Temperatures during this period in the upper-80s. Weather improves on Sunday behind a cold front. Next week, a lingering upper low may bring daily chances for rain in the afternoons.
This afternoon – mostly sunny with a high in the mid-80s. Overnight lows in the low-70s with increasing clouds towards daybreak.
Weather Prediction Center surface forecast for 8PM Saturday
Storm Prediction Center convective outlook for Saturday, showing the region under slight risk for severe weather.
Saturday – a warm front pushes through early in the morning and some showers could accompany this. Mostly cloudy with high temperatures in the upper-80s. A cold front is forecast to push through later, with a prefrontal trough ahead of it. These will serve as the loci for more organized convective activity. Thunderstorms forming in the warm sector behind the early warm front passage may be able to attain severe limits. The main threat is from damaging winds. Overnight lows in the mid-70s with rain chances diminishing early.
Sunday – despite the cold front passage, temperatures stay largely similar to Saturday in the upper-80s due to downsloping winds from the west. With an upper low lingering, isolated, diurnally driven thunderstorms may pop up in the late afternoon, mostly sunny otherwise. Overnight lows in the low-70s.
Monday– mostly sunny though a chance for afternoon pop up showers or thunderstorms persists. High temperatures remain warm in the upper-80s. Overnight lows in the low-70s. Below, you’ll see GFS forecasts for this upper low continuing to influence our weather going into next week. The tangible impacts for this will be continued chances of scattered showers and thunderstorms for much of the week until this upper low finally gets picked back up by primary westerly steering currents and moves offshore.
GFS model 500 mb height and wind. You can see evidence of a persistent upper low that drifts south, then gets cutoff from main steering currents, and remains largely stationary, even retrograding west during next week over the Northeast.
Last Thursday afternoon, April 26, 2019, a line of severe thunderstorms produced potent, damaging winds, some in excess of hurricane force that caused disruptions to regional transportation networks in the DC, Baltimore, and Philadelphia areas. These storms provide an instructive example of what ingredients are required for severe thunderstorms, and how quickly everything can come together on a given day.
Synoptic Set Up (The Big Picture)
On Thursday morning, a low centered over the Great Lakes was progressing north and east. A warm front extended south and east from this low and was moving north, with a noticeable “kink” where there was colder air at higher altitudes along the Appalachians and related foothills. South of this warm front, southerly winds were helping temperatures rise well into the upper-60s and low-70s. A cold front was located a further back and was advancing across Pennsylvania, and the Virginias. This cold front would provide the focus for lift and thunderstorms later in the day, although some more isolated thunderstorms also accompanied the warm front.
Weather Prediction Center surface analysis of this storm at 11AM on April 26, 2019
Above the surface at 850 mb, evidence suggested an axis of relatively saturated air along with a low-level jet of 35-40 knots would develop, providing the moisture necessary for precipitation. Further up in the atmosphere, a negatively tilted 500 mb trough was evident upstream of the area with the Southeast PA region also appearing to be in the exit region of a 300 mb jet streak. Both of these would help enhance lift by providing divergence aloft in the atmosphere as air was removed from the column while decelerating out of the base of the 500 mb trough and 300 mb jet streak respectively.
Fig. 1
Fig.2
Fig. 1: GFS forecast model initialized at 7AM Thursday, April 26, 2019 depicting an axis/tongue of moisture (narrow area of blue) along the PA/NJ border around 5PM that day. Fig. 2: 300 mb analysis for 8PM on Thursday, April 26, 2019. Note the densely packed yellow contours close to the Southeast PA area at this time, indicating strong net divergence in the exit region of a curved jet streak at this level (blue shaded areas with wind barbs showing max winds of 80 knots slowing to 65 knots in the exit region).
Furthermore, winds throughout the atmosphere were strong, and increasing from 35 knots at 850 mb to 60 knots at 300 mb. Meanwhile winds at the surface were light, at 5 knots or so at the from the south. Winds aloft were more from the southwest. So, there was an element of both speed and directional wind shear in the atmosphere this day.
A Sunny Afternoon and Instability
From above, we see that we had several ingredients were taking shape last Thursday: a couple frontal boundaries providing focused lift, moisture at 850 mb, vorticity and net divergence at 500 mb and 300 mb enhancing lift, with strong winds at these levels enhancing wind shear. We still needed one more key component to truly set off some strong to severe thunderstorms: instability. How does instability build up in the atmosphere? The answer has to do with the daytime heating and the sun. That’s why thunderstorms often pop up later in the afternoon when daytime heating is maximized.
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 6
Fig. 3: Storm Prediction Center mesoanalysis highlighting areas favorable for severe weather on the afternoon of April 26, 2019. Fig. 4: Storm Prediction Center analysis of 3-hour mixed layer CAPE (convective available potential energy, a measure of instability) change. Note that the pocket of a large increase in instability corresponds to the location of the pocket of clear skies below. Fig. 6: A marked up visible satellite image at 3:16 PM on Thursday, April 26, 2019 showing the approximate position of frontal boundaries extrapolated from the Storm Prediction Center analysis in the preceding image.
Why does daytime heating at the surface lead to destabilization of the atmosphere? This has to do with buoyancy and lapse rates. Lapse rate describes the change in temperature over a given altitude. As the sun heats the surface of the earth up, it shifts the environmental temperature line to the right on a skewT sounding as the one attached below, taken at 2PM on Thursday, April 26, 2019 at Washington Dulles International Airport (KIAD). This tends to increase instability because a warmer airmass above the surface will have greater buoyancy. A large lapse rate combined with enhanced buoyancy allows for air from the surface to rise, and keep rising forming towering cumulus clouds that can eventually build into thunderclouds. As long as a parcel rising from the surface stays warmer than the environmental temperature profile (red line), it will keep rising.
A skewT of a sounding taken at Washington Dulles International Airport (KIAD) at 2PM on Thursday, April 26, 2019. Refer to this post for how to interpret this skewT.
The Storm Prediction Center was well aware that the severe weather potential was maximized for areas that saw clearing skies in advance of the approaching cold front. They also picked up on tornado potential focused on the “kinked” warm front. This is due to the fact that such an orientation of a warm front leads to a situation where surface winds are locally backed, meaning they’re turning counterclockwise over time. This was also paired with a localized pressure fall of 3 mb over the two hours leading up to 3 PM on Thursday.
Storm Prediction Center mesoanalysis of 2 hour pressure tendencies. The area of Southeastern PA, northeast MD, and northern DE had seen a pressure fall of 3 mb leading up to 3PM Thursday.
As was the case with the Lee County Tornado that claimed 23 lives in Alabama on March 3, 2019, these locally backed winds due to the warm front and pressure falls (leading to some isallobaric winds) served to enhance storm relative helicity and create an environment favorable for storm rotation and the possibility for tornadoes. The backing winds also served to increase wind shear and the potential for severe weather. Luckily, in this case, other environmental factors weren’t supportive for a large, strong tornado.
Last Sunday, while I was preparing my post on the snowstorm that was about to hit NYC and the Northeast, the southern side of this same storm system was starting to produce a serious severe weather event in portions of the Deep South. A large, violent, and ultimately deadly EF4 tornado hit parts of Lee County, AL during the afternoon. The tragic toll of 23 confirmed fatalities due to this tornado was more than double the total deaths due to tornadoes in all of 2018. This was also the deadliest single tornado since the EF5 tornado that hit Moore, OK on May 20, 2013. In this post, I’ll share some thoughts and observations about the meteorology behind this event, and about what made this tornado so powerful.
Storm Prediction Center’s Forecasts
One aspect of the event that impressed me was the prescient, geographically accurate, and timely Mesoscale Discussions and convective outlooks that the Storm Prediction Center issued during the course of the day. The SPC already had a handle on the risk for severe weather in parts of the Deep South as evidenced by the convective outlooks they issued Sunday morning.
Storm Prediction Center’s Day 1 Convective Outlook issued at 7:52AM Sunday Mar 3, 2019. The black dot within the orange “ENH” enhanced risk area shows the approximate location of Lee County, AL
Storm Prediction Center similarly recognized the risk for tornadoes on this day. The black dot indicates the location of Lee County, AL. within the hatched yellow area representing a 10% or greater probability of EF2 – EF5 tornadoes within 25 miles of a point risk area
Regarding the enhanced risk area that the SPC identified as possibly being affected by tornadoes:
The most favorable … space for tornadic potential … still appears to be within the enhanced-risk area, where strong deep shear, large low-level hodographs, and at least low-end surface-based buoyancy will juxtapose. Forecast soundings show rapid prefrontal destabilization …. [a]s that occurs, severe potential will steadily ramp up…. a few tornadoes also are possible. Tornado-event density, and risk of significant tornadoes, still is somewhat unclear — being strongly dependent on existence/number of preceding supercells that can develop…
SPC foresaw that the energy (instability) and spin (shear, imparted by strong winds at different levels of the atmosphere) required for strong tornadoes would have a chance to come together in the enhanced risk area. They also identified that the greatest risk would be with any supercells that could form ahead of the main line of thunderstorms that would accompany the cold front later on.
Weather Prediction Center’s surface analysis valid for 1PM EDT Mar 3, 2019, an hour or so before the EF4 tornado struck Lee County, AL
As it turned out, supercells did form ahead of the cold front – one in particular drew the attention of astute SPC forecasters, and this would end up being the supercell responsible for the tornado that hit Lee County. In follow up Mesoscale Discussions regarding the tornado watches over the enhanced risk area, SPC forecasters were remarkably accurate and timely in identifying the risks associated with this supercell and the favorable conditions it would encounter.
Lee County is circled in green in SPC’s Mesoscale Discussion #0145 surface map.
MCD #0145 was issued at 1PM CDT (local time), and contained the following text. The forecasters cited favorable conditions for a strong tornado to form within 30-60 minutes. Just around 2PM, about 60 minutes after this MCD was issued, the EF4 tornado hit Lee County.
A mature supercell located near Montgomery is favorably located within a region of maximized surface pressure falls (3-4mb per 2 hours) immediately east/southeast of the surface low. KMXX VAD shows 500 m2/s2 0-1km SRH when accounting for the observed Montgomery County supercell’s storm motion. Given the ample buoyancy and intense shear profile in place, it appears tornadogenesis will likely occur within the next 30-60 minutes with the possibility of a strong tornado occurring.
Why Conditions Were So Favorable for a Strong Tornado
The following analysis about the mesoscale conditions that favored strong tornadoes on this day came about from a discussion I had with Steve Corfidi, my instructor for the class I took on mesoscale forecasting (severe weather forecasting) as part of Penn State’s Undergraduate Certificate in Weather Forecasting. Steve Corfidi also used to be the Lead Forecaster at the SPC. Suffice to say, I am quite privileged to have been able to glean some insights about this storm from him. These observations are related to another MCD from SPC that day, MCD #0147.
Storm Prediction Center’s MCD #0147, issued at 2:06PM CDT, right around the time the EF4 Lee County Tornado was on the ground. Lee County is circled in green.
In this MCD, the SPC highlights an area of localized surface pressure falls in dashed blue. Steve Corfidi commented this effect is related to “rise and fall pressure “waves” that move across the earth twice-daily in response to solar heating”. As the earth heats up, air warms and rises, and this generates a thermal low since there’s less air over a warmed up spot of the earth than surrounding areas. In this case, this resulted in a localized area of surface pressure falls over the area circled in dashed blue as the day progressed. In response, surface winds will have a tendency to deflect towards the center of the lowering pressure. You can see this by looking at the wind barbs in the chart above: those that are closer to the cold front are more southwesterly, but the ones closer to the blue dashed area are actually more southerly, since they are deflecting towards the north and the localized pressure falls. This is known as the isallobaric effect. This had direct impacts on the favorability of the environment for tornadoes, as Steve Corfidi helped me understand.
My illustration of the situation over Lee County during this tornado.
As winds near the localized pressure falls became more southerly in response to isallobaric effect, this actually increased the vertical wind shear values in the area of the pressure falls (green here, blue dashed area in the SPC analysis, the red 300 mb wind profile barbs are approximated from this sounding). Since vertical wind shear is measured by looking at both the difference in direction and speed of winds at different levels, a change in wind direction at the surface, all else being equal, will result in higher wind shear. Relative to other areas in the warm sector of this storm, this produced an even higher value of storm relative helicity (SRH, as alluded to in MCD #0145) as well as the aforementioned vertical wind shear. I don’t have space to elaborate on why SRH and vertical wind shear are important for tornadoes, I will say that it has to do with enhancing storm rotation, and tornadoes are intense, vertical circulations of rotating air.
One other observation worth mentioning is that the “geometry” of the warm sector maximized the amount of time the supercell could spend in an extremely favorable environment. If you look at the large blue arrow in my illustrated diagram, check out how the approximate mean storm motion was largely parallel to the orientation of the warm front and axis of the maximized surface pressure falls. That meant that as the tornado formed, it was able to keep moving through a favorable environment for much longer than if the storm motion had been more northeasterly, or say southeasterly.
A wet start to the weekend will then give way to much warmer weather. We’ll get a break from the rain Sunday and Monday before the next shot for rain. Of note, a possible tornado may have impacted parts of northern Queens last night.
Rest of today – increasing chances for showers and thunderstorms especially in the early afternoon. Otherwise, mostly cloudy with high temperatures in the mid-80s.
Saturday – more widespread showers and thunderstorms in the morning, with some concern for flash flooding. The set up also could produce some isolated severe weather as a weak impulse of energy travels up the upper trough that’s been locked in over the Eastern US this week. Improving conditions later with highs in the mid-80s.
Sunday – the upper trough that’s been causing this week’s wet weather finally exits east. High pressure begins to build south of us, bringing warmer temperatures with highs in the low-90s and lots of sun.
Monday – more of the same as Sunday, sunny, hot and humid with highs in the low-90s.
Possible Tornado in Northern Queens Last Night
At 10:18 last night, residents in northern Queens, the eastern Bronx and northern Nassau received alerts from our local National Weather Service forecast office of a tornado warning. The damage was evident this morning, with many downed trees in College Point. A team from the NWS is assessing the damage to determine whether what hit this area last night was really a tornado, or if it was some other non-tornadic wind phenomena.
I was in a neighborhood that received this warning, but at first, I almost thought it was in error because there were no signs outside of anything awry, no thunder, no rain. However, a quick look at the base radial velocity imagery on the JFK high-definition terminal Doppler radar was revealing – there certainly was a storm with very strong rotation, hence why the warning notes “radar indicated tornado”. In the annotated base radial velocity image below, the white circle indicates a tight mesocyclonic circulation.
Without going too much into technical detail, the greens indicate inbound velocities relative to the radar station (air was flowing towards the radar), while oranges and reds indicate outbound velocities (where air was flowing away from the radar). When forecasters see a “velocity couplet” like this where inbound and outbound velocities are close together, they know this is a signature of strong storm rotation within a mesocyclone. If, within this couplet, you get a “gate to gate” (i.e. adjacent pixels) where the difference between inbound and outbound velocities exceed 90 knots, this is referred to as a “tornado vortex signature”. In this image, if you do the math, you get that the max difference between inbound and outbound velocities was 86 knots, and you an see what appears to be a tornado vortex signature.
We’ll see what the NWS’ assessment says later today, but it appears to me that there was a tornado at some point over northern Queens last night!
UPDATE (1:46PM August 3, 2018): The National Weather Service issued a report confirming that an EF0 tornado touched down in portions of College Point, Queens last night.
The story of this week will be the continuation of an unsettled weather pattern from this past weekend. Today, we will see a chance for some severe thunderstorms, and more rain chances lurk for us during the rest of this week, even extending into the weekend. Temperatures during this time will vary between normal and below normal depending on the extent of cloud cover and rain.
Rest of today – warm, humid, with a high in the mid-80s. Chances for severe thunderstorms increasing late in the afternoon. The Storm Prediction Center has placed our area in an enhanced risk for severe thunderstorms, with primary threats being damaging “hurricane force” wind gusts, as well as heavy rain. Some large hail and an isolated tornado are not out of the question. High resolution rapid refresh model simulated radar suggests the best timing of when the storms hit NYC will be around 6PM during the evening rush hour. This will make for a messy road home.
As you can feel already, the air is quite saturated (fog earlier this morning confirms this), this moisture-laden air will be one ingredient fueling storm growth later especially as temperatures warm with cloud-free skies allowing solar heating to quickly destabilize this air mass. At the surface, a cold front slowly approaching from the north and west will serve as the trigger that provides the lift necessary for storms to initiate late this afternoon. Aloft, the presence of a mid-level shortwave trough upstream of us will help prime the atmosphere, increasing lapse rates and instability aloft, while providing some additional divergence and lifting for storms. Lastly, late in the day, we will be in the right entrance region of a 300 mb jet streak, another favorable ingredient for divergence and synoptic lift. Winds at all levels above the surface will be fairly strong, producing a shear profile that favors strong winds. However, any discrete storms that form ahead of the main squall line could contain strong rotating updrafts favoring large hail and tornadoes. As usually, best chances for severe weather exist north and west of the city, away from the stabilizing influence of the marine layer near the coast. Storms will likely weaken as they hit NYC precisely due to this.
Wednesday – will be significantly cooler behind the cold front with high temperatures only in the mid-60s. Rain chances continue as the frontal boundary stalls and becomes stationary just to our south, in a similar arrangement to what took place over the weekend. This pattern looks to lock in for the rest of the week, bringing multiple chances for rain with it.
Thursday – a drier day mostly, with some slight chance for showers in the morning, then mostly cloudy with high temperatures rebounding into the upper-70s. Rain moves back in again overnight going into Friday.
Friday – cooler again with temperatures dipping into the mid-60s. Mostly cloudy with more chances for rain during the day as the stationary front mentioned above pushes back north as a warm front.
After two days of record-breaking heat in the low-90s, a pattern change is on tap for the NYC metro area going into the weekend. Cooler conditions will prevail in the wake of the passage of a cold front, which could also bring rain and thunderstorms (possibly severe). Saturday should shape up nicely but rain chances return Sunday before a cooler start to the work week.
Rest of today – the Storm Prediction Center has placed portions of the region under a marginal-slight risk of severe thunderstorm activity today. We continue to be an increasingly moist warm sector east of an advancing low pressure center. As the cold front associated with this low pushes east, storms will initiate first along a pre-frontal trough during the day today (late morning-early afternoon), then again along the actual frontal boundary itself later this evening. It is the latter round of these storms that could push severe limits. There are limiting factors to this activity especially near the coast with more stable air present. Cloud cover will limit day time heating, reducing overall instability. And the earlier round of activity should serve to actually mitigate the later round of storms. Aside from the rain, it should be mostly cloudy with some breaks in the sun (that would increase chances for storms), with high temperatures in the mid-80s.
Saturday – cooler air moves in behind the cold front tonight while a weak area of high pressure builds. High temperatures should top out in the mid-70s with partly sunny conditions. Rain chances increase towards the overnight hours.
Sunday – cooler still with mostly cloudy skies and chances for rain. High temperatures only in the mid-60s as a weak disturbance passes to our south.
Monday – skies finally clear up with high temperatures moderating and warming into the upper-60s.
The weather on Sunday turned out to be a real gift for fathers in the region, yielding a lot more clear skies than anticipated going into the weekend. We could have a rough start this week with possible severe weather, and another chance of rain mid-week. A tropical system forming over the Gulf of Mexico bears watching this coming weekend.
Rest of today – humid and warm with high temperatures in the low to mid-80s. Mostly sunny to start. All the ingredients for possibly severe thunderstorms will be in place this afternoon and evening. A flash flood watch is in effect for most of the area west of Long Island. The Storm Prediction Center has placed some of the region west of the Hudson River under an enhanced risk of experiencing severe weather with the city itself in a slight risk area.
A vigorous cold front will move east towards NYC today. As we can feel, the airmass ahead of the front is saturated and warm. The more sun we get before the front approaches, the greater the destabilization in the atmosphere. The cold front will line up with the flow of the jet stream, which will favor line segments and training of storm cells repeatedly hitting the same areas (flash flood warning is in place because of this).
Timing of the leading edge of the storms appears to be around 5pm. Any storms or substantial cloud cover ahead of this would decrease the severe potential. Primary threat along this leading line of storms would be damaging wind gusts with a small chance for hail and a couple isolated tornadoes.
Behind this leading line of storms, we could see a slight break around 8PM, but then more rounds of moderate to heavy rains that could lead to flash flooding.
Tuesday – severe weather and rain should dissipate fairly quickly after midnight. Decreasing clouds in the wake of the cold front though high temperatures remain similar to today due to the influence of southwest winds.
Wednesday – mostly sunny with high temperatures in the low-80s. A chance for rain in the afternoon, but much milder and less widespread than today.
Thursday – mostly sunny again, with highs in the low-80s again.
Potential Tropical Storm in the Gulf
Two possible tropical systems are churning, one east of the Windward Islands and the other crossing over the Yucatan into the Gulf of Mexico. The latter system may have a tangible impact in terms of bringing tropical moisture to the area this coming weekend.
We’ve been able to enjoy a very comfortable week of summer weather. High temperatures have been largely held in check in the low-mid 80s this week. This weekend, there will be a chance for some rain Saturday, but Sunday will be another nice day with mostly sunny skies and high temperatures in the mid-80s.
Rest of today – mostly sunny, high around 85ºF.
Saturday – watching for the risk of scattered strong to severe thunderstorms tomorrow. The degree of severity will hinge upon how much cloud cover there is during the first half of the day, and whether any storms pop up early. If there are more clouds early, and some storms show up early, the available energy for storms in the afternoon associated with a cold front will be limited. Ahead of this cold front, warm, humid air will flow in, and temperatures should peak near 90ºF.
Sunday – skies will clear quickly following the passage of the aforementioned cold front. High pressure begins to take over and will give us a nice, sunny day, with highs in the mid-80s.
Monday – almost a clone of Sunday with mostly sunny skies and highs in the mid-80s.
Tuesday – with high pressure still almost directly overhead, we will get another nice day with highs in the mid-80s.
Slight Improvement in Drought Conditions
With recent rounds of heavy rain and thunderstorms that have impacted the area, we’ve seen a slight improvement in drought conditions, but the situation is still far from desirable.
Recent weather headlines have been dominated by the heat. This will continue through most of the week, with relief not really in sight until Friday. There will be a chance for severe thunderstorms today, but otherwise, there will be little in the way of rain.
Rest of today – mostly sunny, hot, with highs in the mid-90s. Humidity will make it feel like the lower-100s. The Storm Prediction Center has placed parts of the region under a slight risk for severe weather today. This relates to what appear to be multiple line segments of strong to severe thunderstorms advancing ahead of a weak cold front that look to impact the area during the PM rush.
Tuesday – with the weak cold front above passing through, there will be some drop in humidity. However, temperatures are still expected to rise into the mid-90s under mostly sunny skies.
Wednesday – temperatures finally start to back off the mid-90s into the low-90s under mostly sunny skies.
Thursday – increasing clouds, high near 90ºF.
Drought Continues to Grip the Northeast
Drought continues to worsen and is now prevalent in many parts of the Northeast, with areas in Western New York and Massachusetts particularly hard hit.
Last weekend featured weather more typical of late-July for the region. This weekend, temperatures will be much cooler, and we may see some heavy rain and possibly even a marginally severe thunderstorm Sunday. Next week, temperatures remain in the below to near-normal range as we feel the impacts of a lingering low pressure over Eastern Canada.
Rest of today – cloudy, with high temperatures in the mid-70s. Areas of rain will continue pushing through the area until around 3PM this afternoon.
Saturday – the nicer of the weekend days, partly sunny with high temperatures in the low-80s. Some chance for scattered showers and thunderstorms especially north and west of the city.
Sunday – a warm front pushes through early, putting us in the warm sector prior to the approach of a cold front associated with a low pressure center over Quebec. This set up could support the development of marginally severe thunderstorms, and the training of multiple storm cells could also lead to some minor flooding. Temperatures will be in the mid-70s. Rain tapers off overnight.
Storm Prediction Center has put portions of the region under a slight chance for severe weather Sunday.
Monday – weather calms down again and temperatures go back up to around 80ºF as clouds clear up.
Tuesday – mostly sunny with a high again near 80ºF.
